Structural Determinants in Human DNA Polymerase γ Account for Mitochondrial Toxicity from Nucleoside Analogs

Although antiviral nucleoside analog therapy successfully delays progression of HIV infection to AIDS, these drugs cause unwelcome side-effects by inducing mitochondrial toxicity. We and others have demonstrated that the mitochondrial polymerase, DNA polymerase γ (pol γ), participates in mitochondrial toxicity by incorporating these chain-terminating antiviral nucleotide analogs into DNA. Here, we explore the role of three highly conserved amino acid residues in the active site of human pol γ that modulate selection of nucleotide analogs as substrates for incorporation. Sequence alignments, crystal structures and mutagenesis studies of family A DNA polymerases led us to change Tyr951 and Tyr955 in polymerase motif B to Phe and Ala, and Glu895 in polymerase motif A was changed to Ala. The mutant polymerases were tested for their ability to incorporate natural nucleotides and the five antiviral nucleoside analogs currently approved for antiviral therapy: AZT, ddC, D4T, 3TC and carbovir. Steady-state kinetic analysis of the pol γ derivatives with the normal and antiviral nucleotides demonstrated that Tyr951 is largely responsible for the ability of pol γ to incorporate dideoxynucleotides and D4T-MP. Mutation of Tyr951 to Phe renders the enzyme resistant to dideoxynucleotides and D4T-TP without compromising the activity of the polymerase. Alteration of Glu895 and Tyr955 to Ala had the largest effect on overall polymerase activity with normal nucleotides, producing dramatic increases in Km(dNTP) and large decreases in kcat. Mutation of Tyr955 in pol γ causes the degenerative disease progressive external ophthalmoplegia in humans, and we show that this residue partially accounts for the ability of pol γ to incorporate D4T-MP and carbovir. Alteration of Glu895 to Ala slightly increased discrimination against dideoxynucleotides and D4T-TP. The mechanisms by which pol γ selects certain nucleotide analogs are discussed.