Microstructural investigation of ice surfaces after rubber–ice and sand–ice sliding friction tests

The dual process of etching and replicating technique revealing lattice dislocations, dislocation cells, grain and sub-grain boundaries, etc., in ice has been applied to investigate the microstructure of freshly deformed ice surfaces after rubber–ice and sand–ice sliding friction tests. Features related to the generation, multiplication and mobility of dislocations were observed in ice subjected to rubber–ice friction even at high speeds and high ice temperatures, involving low friction. During sand–ice friction, deformation took place at the surfaces as well as deeper within the ice by ploughing sand particle, and was accompanied with recrystallization. The deformation features in ice found in the laboratory were also observed in full-scale tire–ice interactions on ice covered runway pavements.