Biomonitoring of exposure to aromatic amines: haemoglobin adducts in humans

Haemoglobin (Hb) adducts from aromatic amines (AAs) are well established biomarkers of exposure. Tobacco smoking and occupational exposure are major sources of AA Hb adducts. The origin of background levels in non-smokers and non-occupationally exposed humans are largely unknown. Here we examine the determination of AA Hb adducts, focussing on the analytical strategies for Hb isolation, removal of unbound AAs from Hb solutions, hydrolysis of the Hb bound AAs, extraction, preconcentration, clean-up and derivatisation of the free amines for determination by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Finally, a detailed summary of available results on the determination of AA Hb adducts is given.