From solid–vacuum to solid–gas and solid–liquid interfaces: In situ studies of structure and dynamics under relevant conditions

Surface science instrumentation usually requires working under high vacuum. But in many cases the surface reactivity and structure in real environments can be dramatically different from that measured in this pressure range, where traditional atomic scale studies have been carried out. In this paper we briefly describe some techniques that have been improved to work under high pressures of gases or with liquids. Examples of recent research studies on solid–liquid and solid–gas interfaces are shown. The possibility to work with these instruments under realistic conditions to obtain information in situ during reactions or processes can have a great impact in heterogeneous catalysis, fuel cells, photovoltaics, batteries, corrosion, biological systems and many other fields.