Nanogeochemistry: Nanostructures, emergent properties and their control on geochemical reactions and mass transfers

Nanogeochemistry—a newly emerging research field—attempts to understand geochemical reactions and mass transfers at nanometer scales, especially with regards to the formation of nanostructures in geochemical systems, emergent properties of these structures, and their controls on geochemical processes. The research also includes use of nanotechnology to design new materials and engineering approaches for effective natural resource extraction and environmental management. At the core of this new research field is the concept that, as the size of a material is reduced to nanometers, novel physical or chemical properties of the material may emerge that can be drastically different from those of the corresponding bulk phase and the material properties then become size-dependent. Nanostructures, which frequently occur in geologic materials, may directly control mineral phase stability, mineral–water interface chemistry, geochemical reaction kinetics, geo-fluid migration and transport, and even global biogeochemical cycles as a whole. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of recent progress in nanogeochemical research. The review is focused on two general types of nanostructures—nano solid phases and nanopores (nanofluids)—with an emphasis on the occurrence of each nanostructure in natural environments, the associated emergent properties, and the potential geochemical implications. Stemming from an increasing interest in shale gas research, a special discussion is provided on gas/oil disposition and migration in unconventional low-permeability reservoirs, wherein shale is treated as a nanocomposite material. Nanogeochemistry is a relatively young research field, and much remains to be explored. There is an urgent need for systematically characterizing specific nanostructures over the whole nanometer-size range and developing a general theoretical framework for data analysis and synthesis. There is also a need for developing experimental and modeling techniques to extrapolate the knowledge obtained from simple model systems to complex natural systems.