Frost weathering and rockwall erosion in the southeastern Swiss Alps: Long-term (1994–2006) observations

Rates and processes of frost weathering in the Alps were investigated by visual observations of intensively shattered rocks, continuous monitoring of frost wedging and rock temperatures in bedrock and measurements of rockfall activity. Rapid frost weathering of hard-intact rocks occurs along lakes and streams where seasonal freezing promotes ice segregation in the rock. Otherwise, rocks require pre-existing weakness or a long exposure period for intensively shattered. Automated monitoring shows that crack opening occurs at three scales, including small opening accompanying short-term frost cycles, slightly larger movements during seasonal freezing and occasional large opening originating from refreezing of snow-melt water during seasonal thawing. The opening events require at least partial water saturation in the crack. The repetition of crack opening (frost wedging) results in permanent opening and finally debris dislocation. Debris collections below fractured rockwalls show that pebble falls occur at an average rate of about 0.1 mm a− 1 with significant spatial and inter-annual variations. Occasional large boulder falls significantly raise the rockwall erosion rates, controlled by such factors as the joint distribution in the bedrock, repetition of annual freeze–thaw cycles and extraordinary summer thaw.