Understanding sources of airborne water soluble metals in Lahore, Pakistan

Lahore, the second largest city of Pakistan with a population of over 10 million, is growing at a rate of 3.32 percent per year. This is accompanied by a large increase in the number of motor vehicles in recent years (over 37 % average annual increase during the last 5 years) and some industrialization. This air quality study, undertaken from March 13 to April 16, 2006, indicated high levels of PMi0 which ranged between 158 and 733 µg/m3 with an average of 360 µg/m3. All measurements exceeded the USEPA as well as EU 24-hour standard values. Concentrations of 23 elements in water extracts of PMi0 were determined by ICP-OES along with the ions chlorides, nitrates, sulfates,ammonium and potassium by ion chromatography. The concentrations were generally low except for crustal elements of calcium, magnesium and sodium, and toxic metals cadmium, lead and zinc. A higher concentration of crustal elements was expected due to the arid nature of the area, suggesting a greater contribution of wind-blown and resuspended road dust to PMi0. Nitrates, sulfates and ammonium were also measured in relatively high concentrations indicating the contributions by secondary aerosols. Principal Component Analysis showed that the greatest contributors to PMi0 were industrial sources followed by secondary aerosols and mobile sources.