Industrial-scale methods for the manufacture of liposomes and nanoliposomes: pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and nutraceutical aspects

Liposomes are microscale lipid bilayer vesicles, widely employed for solubilizing drugs and delivering them to the body with precise targeting and controlled release. The nanoscale version of liposomes is known as nanoliposome. These biocompatible and biodegradable drug delivery systems have several advantages, such as the ability to be loaded with various drug molecules in physiological conditions. Compared with other delivery systems, such as micelles, polymeric, metallic nanocarriers, or niosomes, liposomes are the most well-established and commercially available carrier, used not only in pharmaceuticals, but also in cosmeceutical and nutraceutical products. However, scaling-up their manufacture and ensuring sufficient stability are significant challenges for liposomes. In this review, we discuss several industrial-scale methods for liposome preparation including organic solvent methods, freeze-drying of double emulsions, heating method, Mozafari method, membrane contactor method, liposome formation by curvature tuning, biomimetic liposomal self-assembly, sonication method, extrusion method, spray drying method, and microfluidic systems. Some factors leading to physicochemical or biological instability and the ways to overcome these challenges are discussed. International agencies’ quality control procedures and regulatory aspects for liposomal and nanoliposomal drug product development are also addressed.