Surface sensitivity of Auger-electron spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

The issue we address is whether an animal knows or understands the significance of learning. We constructed an animalʹs own conceptualization via resolving a paradox underlying the process of learning. We found a kind of self-similar pattern in the behavior of goldfish resolving a paradoxical experimental problem. The pattern can be considered as a solution to the paradox in the experiment. An animalʹs own learning should be revised through solving paradoxes. The dualism of mechanistic thinking and vitalism can thus be avoided.