New regulatory co-receptors: inducible co-stimulator and PD-1

Autoreactive lymphocytes are suppressed in healthy individuals by so-called peripheral tolerance. Accumulating evidence indicates that co-receptor signaling plays a pivotal role in the regulation of autoreactive lymphocytes. The positive regulatory co-receptors CD28 and inducible co-stimulator (ICOS) transduce stimulatory cosignals, whereas the negative regulatory co-stimulators CTLA-4 and PD-1 are critical for the regulation of peripheral tolerance and autoimmunity. PD-1 deficient mice develop lupus-like glomerulonephritis and arthritis on a C57Bl/6 background and autoimmune-dilated cardiomyopathy on a BALB/c background.