Production systems aligned with distributed economies: Examples from energy and biomass sectors

This article builds on the introduction to the concept of distributed economies (DE) by Johansson et al. [Johansson A, Kisch P, Mirata M. Distributed economies – a new engine for innovation. Journal of Cleaner Production, this issue] and takes the discussion further by reviewing examples of production systems that, due to certain characteristics, can be seen as illustrative DE elements. Through selected cases from energy production and biomass products sectors, the environmental and business benefits provided by local, small-scale, flexible production units that increase value addition to local assets are exemplified. The factors supporting the development of such systems are also reviewed. The lessons extracted from these cases are designed to guide the development of other production and product systems aligned with DE.