Traffic-generated emissions of ultrafine particles from pavement–tire interface

In a road simulator study, a significant source of sub-micrometer fine particles produced by the road–tire interface was observed. Since the particle size distribution and source strength is dependent on the type of tire used, it is likely that these particles largely originate from the tires, and not the road pavement. The particles consisted most likely of mineral oils from the softening filler and fragments of the carbon-reinforcing filler material (soot agglomerates). This identification was based on transmission electron microscopy studies of collected ultrafine wear particles and on-line thermal treatment using a thermodesorber. The mean particle number diameters were between 15–50 nm, similar to those found in light duty vehicle (LDV) tail-pipe exhaust. A simple box model approach was used to estimate emission factors in the size interval 15–700 nm. The emission factors increased with increasing vehicle speed, and varied between 3.7×1011 and 3.2×1012 particles vehicle−1 km−1 at speeds of 50 and 70 km h−1. This corresponds to between 0.1–1% of tail-pipe emissions in real-world emission studies at similar speeds from a fleet of LDV with 95% gasoline and 5% diesel-fueled cars. The emission factors for particles originating from the road–tire interface were, however, similar in magnitude to particle number emission factors from liquefied petroleum gas-powered vehicles derived in test bench studies in Australia 2005. Thus the road–tire interface may be a significant contributor to particle emissions from ultraclean vehicles.