The effects of zinc, copper and cadmium on the fine structure of Ceramium ciliatum (Rhodophyceae, Ceramiales)

The effects of zinc (3.2 mg/litre, 6.5 mg/litre, 13 mg/litre), copper (0.7 mg/litre, 1.4 mg/litre, 2.8 mg/litre) and cadmium (1 mg/litre, 2 mg/litre, 10 mg/litre) on the fine structure of vegetative and reproductive cells of Ceramium ciliatum were examined under laboratory culture conditions. In all cases, the main effects on vegetative cells were ultrastructural changes in plastids and heavy staining of the cell wall and mucilage. In contrast carpospores remained unmodified.