Human exposure to p,p′-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p′-DDE) in urban and semi-rural areas in southeast Spain: A gender perspective Original Research Article

p,p′-Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p′-DDE) is the main metabolite of pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and a marker of past exposure to this organochlorine pesticide. p,p′-DDE is considered a persistent organic pollutant with potential adverse effects on human health. The aims of the present study were to assess p,p′-DDE levels in serum and adipose tissue from a cohort of adults in southern Spain and to explore the predictors of exposure from a gender perspective. Chemical analyses were performed using gas chromatography–coupled mass spectrometry in tandem mode. The study population (n = 387) was intraoperatively recruited in two areas of Granada Province (southern Spain), and data on potential predictors of these concentrations were gathered by questionnaire. The statistical analysis was performed by means of multivariable linear regression models. All participants showed detectable concentrations of p,p′-DDE in both serum and adipose tissue, with median concentrations of 175.7 and 93.0 ng/g lipid, respectively (p < 0.001), and the two measurements showed positive correlations. Women showed higher concentrations than men (115.8 and 66.2 ng/g lipid, respectively, p < 0.001). Concentrations in both matrices were positively associated with fatty food consumption, as well as with age and BMI, the latter only in adipose tissue. The multivariate model showed that, among women, adipose tissue concentrations were approximately 40% higher in those residing in the semi-rural area and 2-fold higher in those whose mothers had participated in agricultural activities during the pregnancy. In this study population, gender and place of residence play a key role in human exposure to p,p′-DDE and can be used to identify subjects at special risk of long-term exposure.