Adaptation, microevolution and speciation of violets (Viola L., Violaceae) at metalliferous soils in Europe

calamine (Zn/Pb) and serpentine (Ni/Cr/Fe/Mg) sites and representing different status of the metallophyte - plant tolerating high heavy metal concentration (obligatory or facultative), were examined in terms of the impact of heavy metal contamination on plant adaptation, population genetic differentiation and speciation. Using biosystematic studies, including morphological, microstructural, embryological, genetic analyses, combined with estimation of arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization and soil characteristic it was possible to solve the following problems: (1) intra- and interpopulational morphological variability and genetic diversity of facultative metallophytes are the result of the impact of soil heavy metal pollution, (2) the origin (ancestor taxon finding) of several obligatory metallophytes, (3) the role of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AMF) in heavy metal tolerance, (4) costs of tolerance in sexual reproduction, (5) floral adaptations to serpentine conditions. Viola tricolor populations were separated by ISSR markers on metalliferous and non-metalliferous (genotypes, ecotypes). Putative hybrids V. riviniana x V. reichenbachiana at metalliferous sites could be considered as stabilized introgressive forms toward V. riviniana based on AFLP markers. Zinc violets (V. lutea ssp. calaminaria and V. lutea ssp. westfalica) from calamine soils and several albanian violets from serpentine soils evolved from non-metallophyte mountain species V. lutea and are remnants of its earlier wider distribution based on microstructural flower characters and ITS markers. AMF plays important role in adaptation to heavy metal sites of all violets with the exception of V. albanica. Impaired of sexual reproduction has been observed in almost all violets however without significant impact on populations’ spread due to the several floral characters that plays adaptive role in serpentine conditions and ensure reproductive success of violets.