Nullor equivalent networks of nonideal operational amplifiers and voltage-controlled sources

Equivalent networks of the operational amplifier with finite gain-bandwidth (a VCVS) are given. These equivalent networks consist of resistors, capacitors, and nuillator-norator pairs. Equivalent networks are shown for the basic operational amplifier feedback connections (i.e., inverting, noninverting, and differential). The networks are extended to include the other principal deviations from the ideal operational amplifier. The technique of applying the new models to the generation of improved active networks is then described.