Propagation Theory and Calculations at Lower Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF)

Propagation theory along the lines of Budden´s terrestrial waveguide formalism is reviewed. Special emphasis is placed on its application to the lower extremely low frequency (ELF) range for which a number of calculations have been made to demonstrate the relationship between propagation parameters and the physical constants of the ionosphere. Calculations performed with diffuse anisotropic ionospheres yield reasonable agreement with ELF test results.