Electrical properties of biomaterials-instrumentation and measurements

Measurements of electrical properties of biological materials pose problems that result from very large changes of the dielectric constant and loss factor with frequency, the need to measure these properties as a function of temperature, and the need to measure properties of tissues in vivo. Instrumentation and measurement methods developed and used by the authors at frequencies from 10 kHz to 10 GHz for in-vivo and in-vitro biological materials are described. The discussion covers both the sensors and the instrumentation for time-domain and frequency-domain measurements. A general description of work carried out in other laboratories is included