Limits to the power conversion efficiency of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers

Summary form only given. Reduction of electrical and optical losses in vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) through improved design, growth, and fabrication techniques has produced dramatic improvements in power conversion efficiency (PCE). In this paper simple analytical formulae based on realistic linear models are presented for maximum PCE as a function of electrical parameters, material gain coefficients, and optical losses, and optimum values are derived for design variables. The theoretical results are compared with published experimental data for high-efficiency vertical-cavity surface emitting lasers, and a comprehensive figure-of-merit, which relates directly to maximum theoretical PCE is discussed.