A Rigorous Model for Predicting the Path Loss in Near-Ground Wireless Sensor Networks

A versatile near-ground field prediction model is proposed to facilitate accurate WSN simulations. Path loss is split into three segments using the principles of the Fresnel zones. The distances that define the edges of each segment are derived theoretically. The model is validated against experimental data sets obtained in different scenarios. All the propagation features affecting the direct, reflected, and higher order scattered waves are effectively incorporated in the model. Effects of antenna height, frequency of operation, polarization, and terrain electrical and geometrical properties on the connectivity of low-altitude WSNs are studied through Monte Carlo simulations.