Clinical ethical concerns in the implantation of brain-machine interfaces: Part II: Specific clinical and technical issues affecting ethical soundness

In our article, "Clinical Ethical Concerns in the Implantation of Brain-Machine Interfaces: Part I," published in the January/February issue of IEEE Pulse [1], we suggested that implantable brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) are ethically unsound in all but a handful of rare cases. This argument hinges on the invasiveness of the implantation surgery and the existence of effective noninvasive alternatives for most patients. In this article, we seek to prove this assertion by discussing complications that may invalidate the device and/or require additional surgery, and we present suggestions for how implantable BMIs can be made more ethical in the future.