A survey of ionospheric effects upon earth-space radio propagation

The frequency dependence is derived and the order of magnitude is presented for various ionospheric effects upon radio waves which have frequencies greater than the penetration frequency of the ionosphere. Among the phenomena considered are phase-path length change, refraction, frequency change, group-path delay, polarization rotation, and absorption. A detailed discussion is given of the mean value and variability of ionospheric absorption, refraction, scintillations, and polarization changes.