Illusion of motion induced by tendon electrical stimulation

Kinesthetic illusion is a well-known phenomenon elicited by vibratory stimulation to muscle tendon, which presumably causes muscle spindle activity. It is a candidate for kinesthetic sense presentation by direct receptors stimulation, which may lead to novel compact or immobile haptic displays. However, kinesthetic illusion requires strong mechanical vibrations, which hinders its practical use. I proposed to use electrical stimulation to muscle tendon, in which Golgi tendon organ resides, to generate the illusion. The experimental results revealed that tendon electrical stimulation elicited a similar illusion of motion to the kinesthetic illusion.